1.  Natural Unmanageable Factors

1.1 Significant unpredictable factors

1.1.1 Global warming

      There is luck of concrete data about the global warming impact on the tortoises’ populations. Indirect effect of the kserofitization is the fast change in suczesion and desertation of certain current tortoises’ habitats (Lambert, 1984) but on other hand this process turns wetlands in suitable for tortoises’ habitats, where they have been rare or not occurring before.

1.1.2 Extreme climatic phenomena

      Extreme climatic phenomena (severe cold weather and heavy rains during the early spring, high summer temperatures etc.) could inhibit the reproduction and survival of the juveniles but there is no data in the literature relating to this matter. Only a few separate cases are known in Bulgaria.

1.2 Predation

1. Neophron percnopterus - Egyptian Vulture
2. ?quila chrysaetos - Golden Eagle
3. Gypaetus barbatus –Lammergeier  (Bearded Vulture)
4. Sus scrofa –Wild Pig

      Considering the predation as a natural factor, its impact on national tortoises’ number most probably is insignificant. Beshkov (1984) mentions that rarely eggs and juveniles are destroyed or killed by martens (Martes foina), badgers (Meles meles), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), jackals (Canis aureus), ravens (Corvus corax) etc.

1.3 Stepped-over yuveniles

      The period since egg hatch till reaching 7-10 ?m carapax length is the most critical in the entire life circle of tortoises. Due to the lightly ossified hollow at the age of 0 to 4 years they become an easy prey of predators. At habitats where intensive grazing occurs the juveniles are often stepped-over by large hooves but there is luck of quantified data to estimate the factor.

1.4 Low distribution abilities, long-lasting isolation and disintegration of the area

      Tortoises spend most of their life cycle in a small area and very rarely they migrate. Due to the way of living and limited movement capabilities, natural exchange of individuals of different populations separated by physic-geographic barrier (bigger river, high slope, highway etc.) is practically impossible. This is a typical example for species differentiations due to isolation and prevention of the natural genetic exchange (for example the population of Testudo greaca occurring along the Black sea coast of  South-West Kawkaz is described as a new sub-species Testudo graeca nikolskii Ckhikvadze & Tunijev, 1986).
Number decrease (respectively density decrease) and imbalance in the age structure in isolated population are the main factors resulting in population extinction. 

2. Anthropogenic manageable factors

2.1 Destruction, fragmentation and deterioration of the habitats             

2.1.1 Urbanization

      Cosmopolization of towns and villages in the countries of the Mediterranean basin (Atina, Izmir, Tunis, Marsilia, Neapol etc.) is one of the most significant factors for tortoises’ extinction in a wide parameter around them.

2.1.2 Intensive agriculture

      Its a primary factor in the plain regions of the country (Thracian plain and Dobrudja). The intensive planting of monocultures brings the natural habitats destruction.

2.1.3 Felling of the low-growing wood and undergrowth and their transformation into cultivating areas, pastures and coniferous plantations;

      Exploitation of the tortoises’ preferable habitats damages the population integrity and appropriate habitat entirety.   

Photo: G. Popgeorgiev

2.1.4 Application of herbicides and pesticides in the forestry and agriculture

      About 45% of 3585 questioned people have answered that the application of chemicals in the agriculture is one of the main reason for decrease in tortoises’ number in Bulgaria (Beshkov, 1984). During his field research the same author had not found any prove of tortoises mortality cause by intoxication. Considering the indirect impact of this factor is difficult to point concrete data for its significance in the country.
      Research on the impact of aerosol herbicides 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ? 2, 4, 5- trichlorophenoxyacetic acid on the population of T. Hermanni is carried out in Greece (Willemsen & Hailey, 2001). Toxication symptoms (eyes’ bulging, nose secretion, limited movement ability etc.) had been observed in many of the individuals.  34% decrease in tortoises’ mortality has been established for individuals with carapax length of about 10 cm within the regions of aerosol treatment.
      The change in the population age structure had been negatively effected mostly juveniles, which number in the sampling had been decrease to half.  Weight changes of the individuals from the regions treated by herbicides compared to non-treated regions individuals, have not been established. Tortoises mortality caused by herbicide application is comparable with those caused by fires but the potential significance of the first can be estimated as higher due to the frequency and area coverage of the factor.

2.1.5 Infrastructure facilities construction
This threat includes land exploitation of the land for resorts’ building and construction of infrastructure facilities (infrastructure for the underground and surface energy transmitting and communication network, watering system, roads etc), as well as their exploitation. Direct consequences of the construction activities are destruction of natural habitats, population’s disintegration, and death of individuals during the construction activities. This significant factor causes separation of the populations and prevents the natural exchange of the individuals.

2.2 Direct chasing and illegal trading:

2.2.1 Collecting tortoises for the traditional consumption (tortilophagia);

      Every year on certain territories (parts of the Eastern Rhodopes, the Valley of Struma River), mass hunting of tortoises for trading and consumption is organized by poachers. Villages with prevailing catholic population are pointed as canters of traditional tortoise consumption(Rakovski, Belozem, Kalojanovo, Jitnitza).The research done by Beshkov (1984)proves that for many years thousands of tortoises, collected from different Bulgarian regions, had been distributed in the villages with catholic population in the region of Plovdiv. The established break in the low (RIoEW- Blagoevgrad, 2000; RIoEW- Plovdiv,BSPB, Green Balkans, 2000-2002; RIoEW-Haskovo-1990-2002; RIoEW -Sofia, 2000, 2001; RIoEW-Stara Zagora- 2001, 2002; Regional Forestry Department and BSPB 1999-2005 ) during last years prove the data revealed above. Except in the catholic regions the tortilophagia is a „tradition” for the local people in some border regions of South Bulgaria: in the community of Harmanly, Krumovgrad, Ivailovgrad etc. Among the main reasons can be pointed the higher tortoises number in this regions, sites of high population density quite close to villages and lack or insufficiency of terrain control. During joint check of BSPB, RIoEW-Haskovo and RFD- Kurdjali on 10.06.2004 in the town of Iwajlovgrad, “Ludjata” quarter, the most shocking case of tortilophagia for the last years was registered. In the vicinity of cherry orchard around fireplaces hundreds parts of tortoises were found including eggs as most of the rests are coaled. (G. Popgeorgiev, submitted).

      80-100 years ago tortilophagia was completely unknown or very rare in Bulgaria (Beshkov, 1981). One of the first tortilophagia waves appears in years of war (1912-1918). War passes but it remains as collecting and trading of tortoises is most spread during the Second Word War when hundreds of tortoises are transported to Germany as supplies.

      One of the main tortoises consummators till nowadays remains the catholic population in the region of Plovdiv. About 98% of the population of Rakovski town have confirmed their regular consumption of tortoises (Beshkov, 1984, fig.3). It is a fact that many of the local villagers consume as well frogs, hedgehogs and other wild and domestic animals considered not edible in the rest regions of the country.   The functioning till 1981 restaurant “Kostenurkata” (The Tortoise) in the town of Rakovski had been one of the main tortoises’ “consumers”. Even tough the restaurant is known now as “23-rd kilometre”, its emblem remains tortoise. There are signals that “tortoise dish” is still possible to have there after preliminary request of the customer.

Fig. 3: Spreading of tortilophagia among Bulgarian population
(Beshkov, 1984).

      Percentage ratio in the answer of question: “Do the people at your locality consume tortoises or tortoise’s eggs”: 1– no; 2– some of them; 3– often.
Another reason for consuming tortoises is that they are considered as appropriate source of protein (comparable to fish) during the catholic feast. Extremely intensive is the demand of tortoises during the period before the Catholic Easter which suppose high activities of tortoises’ traders and collectors.

      One of the methods used by the poachers for collecting tortoises is by digging their wintering sites. Although data for estimating this threat is insufficient a few cases of using the method are fact. On 20.03.1999 Nomads from Uzundjovo village are restrained with 14 tortoises captured through examination of the soil by metal bars in the region of military polygon “Koren” southeast from town of Haskovo (B. Borisov, pers. raport). There was a police signal in at the RioEW but due to delay in the decision of prosecution the poachers were released without criminal case being registered against them. According to the same source tortoises collecting early in the spring follows the individuals marking in the autumn by long thread which afterwards point the place for examination by the metal bars and excavation. Along with the individuals many more tortoises are taken out.
Other method used by poachers in the region of Haskovo for finding animals underground (hedgehogs) is by trained dogs (yagteriers) and according to the information of the Border Police officers (July, 2004) the same approach is applied to tortoises as well but the data is still insufficient.

Photo: G. Popgeorgiev

Photo: BSPB

2.2.2 The tortoise collection done by the nomads as well as by the people staying in a temporary woodchopper, mushroom and herbs gatherers’ camps

      The settlement of nomad’s camps at some Bulgarian regions (Stranja Mountain and Eastern Rhodopes) is of local, but constant high importance. Local Forestry hires for seasonal workers nomads whose families are camping in the region of logging. Groups of nomads are formed for gathering herbs and mushrooms as well. Providing for 20 to 50 people is a problem, depending on resources of the forest (mushrooms, herbs, wild animals), resulting in decreasing of the numbers and density of the populations, including the population of tortoises.
The consequences of tortoises poaching are considerable decrease in the population density. Other consequences are decreasing in the breeding potential, increasing the vulnerability and extinction of the populations inhabiting specific regions.

Photo: G. Popgeorgiev

2.2.3 Chasing and trading for the aim of curing

      The number of cases of collecting and trading tortoises for curing cancer, leukaemia, impotency and other heavy diseases is approximately stable within last 30-40 years (Wl. Beshkov, unpublished). On 08.04.2004 a poacher was restrained by RioEW-Blagoevgrad in the region of Kresna Gorge (near “Kresnensko hanche”) carrying 12 tortoises (6 T.hermanii and 6 T.graeca). Eventually was found out that they are collected for curing. Most often individuals are offered after a customer order by Internet or newspaper.

2.2.4 Collecting tortoises for pets (live souvenirs)

      Collecting tortoises for domestic keeping is common event. In most of the cases, small or average sized tortoises are taken away from the nature.
Often tortoises are kept in restaurants (mainly at the Black Sea coast, but not only) for visitors’ entertainment.

      In 2002 from a restaurant in Haskovo nine illegally kept tortoises are confiscated.
Alarming is the fact, that many national and local media advertise raising of tortoises in domestic conditionings, stimulating in this way taking the tortoises away from the Nature. In 2002 in transmitted broadcasts (exp. morning block of BTV, Channel 1 is “Za jivotnite s ljubov” etc) reports were done raising desires for owning tortoise as a pet.

      The regions where most often tortoises are captured are mainly tourist places along the Black Sea coast, at Melnik, Kresna Gorge and other often visited countryside places (Beshkov, 1984). Another problem is the releasing of individuals at the end of the summer and autumn at a places inappropriate for the aim [ ?leko hut (1800 m altitude), Vitosha mountain] (Vl. Beskov, submitted).

       Alarming is the tendency of collecting individuals for their exhibiting as attraction on public places, restaurants’ summer gardens, private zoo-collections and zoo parks.

      In 2004 in Zoo Park in town of Kjustendil in “Hisarlaka” area representatives of RIoEW-Sofia and BSPB constatised illegal exhibiting of protected and endangered species amongst the 10 individuals of both tortoises species.

      Similar case was established in August 2004 in Smolena restaurant (near town of Smoljan) where tortoises were illegally breed (B. Petrov, submitted). After a signal RIoEW-Smoljan confiscated and released at the village surroundings two individuals.  

      Another factor of social importance appears within last years, relating to raising tortoises in children gardens and education institutions. It should be considered as a factor of high risk for children’s’ health due to the potential risk of catching salmonellas and leptospiras. In 2003 only four such cases were found out in three different cities: Plovdiv, Asenovgrad and Haskovo. Totally 29 tortoises and one European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) are confiscated. Only from “6-th day care centre” in Haskovo 21 tortoises are confiscated as most of the individuals were in very bad condition due to the long raising on concrete surfaces. All the tortoises had rubbed almost until the oss upper limbs. (G.Popgeorgiev, submitted).

Photo: G. Popgeorgiev

2.2.5 Collecting tortoises for making souvenir decorations

      Collecting tortoises for making souvenirs (ash –traces, goods for decoration) is common event for the Bulgarian Black sea resorts. In the period 2001-2002, RIEW-Bourgas confiscated from traders numerous hollows sold on a street stand together with other marine species in the form of souvenirs. Small and mid-sized tortoises are taken away from nature for this purpose.
On the street stands of “art-bazaar” before temple-memorial “Aleksandar Nevski” in Sofia regularly tortoises’ hollows are sell which during the inspection visits of RIoEW-Sofia are usually confiscated.

2.2.6 Illegal export

      The illegal export of rare and protected species (including tortoises) is event of unknown scale. By this moment, there are .many evidences of illegal tortoises’ export. 32 individuals (5 tortoises and 27 turtles) were confiscated from German residents by officers Vidin Custom-house on 02.06.2001.There is unproved information about organized traffic channel for illegal export of protected reptile species, with destination -western and central European countries. In most of the cases, the individuals are taken away from the main reptiles’ habitats in South Bulgaria, about which information is published.

Photo: RIOSV Haskovo

2.2.7 Illegal trading on the territory of Bulgaria

      Trading with living tortoises is organized at markets and zoo-shops in the country. The individuals taken for this purpose are representatives of wild populations of varied regions. Information about illegal tortoises trading, in the last few year is proved for the market in Rakovski town, where single individuals had been traded altogether in sacks for 2.00 lv for individual (signal of local people).
 Through the Internet technology, appeared many new zoo-web-sites, offering marketing of protected reptile and amphibian species, including tortoises

2.3 Fires

      By 2004 in Bulgaria there is no quantified data about the significance of this factor. Initiated research in 2004 in Eastern Rhodopes region reveals the high significance of the fires as limiting factor affecting negatively tortoises’ populations.  It is proved by carried out monitoring at burnt regions of Eastern Rhodopes and Sackar Mountain during the same year. During a visit of severe fire in the region of villages Koletz, Sarnitza, Spahievo, 162 tortoises were found as 132 of them were dead (burnt), (81, 5 %) and 30 were alive (18, 5%) (G.Popgeorgiev, submitted).
The felling of the trees caught the fire followed by ploughing of the land cause the dead of rest live tortoises and change of there habitat.  Many times in such places are planted not typical for the region tree species as it is in Gorno Lukovo village (near Ivajlovgrad) where cedars are planted. The fire damages are boosted later on when nomads are hired for felling of the damaged trees (point 2.2.2.) (G.Popgeorgiev, submitted). During the last decade this factor plays significant limiting role on the Eastern Rhodopes territory.

Photo: G. Popgeorgiev

      The affect of wild boars (Sus scrofa) on tortoises’ numbers is not enough researched. Data from Montana town region and Eastern Rhodopy mountain points, the wild boars consume juvenile individuals, having not enough ossified hollows (Beshkov, 1984).This is natural factor, afflicting regions of dense populations of wild boars. A case of heavy damage (a hole 3 x 4 sm ) on the plates of adult  T. hermanni (18-20 years) kept in a case together with two adult  boars in the region of Smiljan village(near Smoljan) (B.Petrov, submitted) was studied. It proves that even adult tortoises can become a prey of wild boars.
The significance of semi-wild pigs rising in mass “in wild” might be high at Strange mountain (S.Uzunov, pers. raport), even at “Ropotamo” Rezerve (B. Petrov, submitted), at Eastern Balkan and only in certain regions of Eastern Rhodopes (Julti chal village, Zlatoustovo village) (B. Borisov, pers. raport).
Juvenile tortoises are preys of roaming packs of dogs as well. Their high numbers might be negative factor of importance for decreasing tortoises’ numbers, as well as this of other wild animals’ species